RELIGIOUS REFROM MOVEMENTS IN MODERN
INDIA - CIVIL SERVICE IAS EXAM TOPIC
We
are a very lucky people today. We are free from foreign domination and also free
from many other rigidities which our ancestors had to face. The Indian society
in the first half of the 19th century was caste ridden, decadent and rigid. It
followed certain practices which are not in keeping with humanitarian feelings
or values but were still being followed in the name of religion. A change was
therefore needed in society. When the British came to India they introduced the
English language as well as certain modern ideas. These ideas were those of
liberty, social and economic equality, fraternity, democracy and justice which
had a tremendous impact on Indian society. Fortunately for our country there
were some enlightened Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chand Vidyasagar,
Dayanand Saraswati and many others who were willing to fight and bring in
reforms in society so that it could face the challenges of the West.
OBJECTIVES
After
reading this lesson you will be able to:
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS
- identify some common characteristics of religious a social reform movement;
- explain the role played by Raja Rammohan Roy and his Brahmo Samaj in bringing about religious reforms;
- recognise the Prarthana Samaj as an institution that worked for religious as well as social reform;
- explain the ideology of the Arya Samaj and its contributors to social and religious reforms;
- examine the contribution of the Ramakrishna Mission to India’s awakening in the nineteenth century;
- appreciate the efforts of the Theosophical Society in promoting ancient Indian religions;
- discuss the contribution of the Aligarh Movement towards cultural and educational reforms amongst the Muslims; and
- examine the reforms carried out by the Sikhs and the Parsees to make their society enlightened.
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS
From
the late 19th century a number of European and Indian scholars started the
study of ancient India’s history, philosophy, science, religions and
literature. This growing knowledge of India’s past glory provided to the Indian
people a sense of pride in their civilization. It also helped the reformers in their
work of religious and social reform for their struggle against all type of
inhuman practices, superstitions etc.
Since
they had become associated with religious beliefs, therefore most of the
movements of social reform were of a religious character.
These
social and religious reform movements arose among all communities of the Indian
people. They attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class.
They
worked for abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah system, sati, child
marriage, social inequalities and illiteracy.
Some
of these reformers were supported directly or indirectly by the British
officials and some of the reformers also supported reformative steps and
regulations framed by the British Government.
BRAHMO SAMAJ AND RAJA RAMMOHAN ROY
Men
and women enjoy certain rights and freedom today. But do you know that they
were given to us by the untiring efforts made by certain reformers. Among the
great reformers of this period, Raja Rammohan Roy deserves special mention. He
presented a fine combination of East and the West. A man of great literary
talent and well versed in Indian culture, he also made special effort to study
Christianity and Islam so that he could deal with them with understanding. He
felt great revulsion for many practices prevailing in India that enjoyed religious
approval.
His
main pre-occupation was how to rid the Hindu religion of both image worship,
sacrificial rites and other meaningless rituals. He condemned the priestly
class for encouraging these practices. He opined that all the principal ancient
texts of the Hindus preached monotheism or worship of one God. His greatest
achievement in the field of relisious reform was an setting up in 1828 of the
Brahmo Samaj. The Brahmo Samaj was an important organization of religious
reforms. It forbade idol-worship and discarded meaningless rites and rituals. The
Samaj also forbade its members from attacking any religion. It beliefed in the
basic unity of all the religions. Raja Rammohan Roy believed that man should
adopt truth and goodness
and should give up things based on falsehood and superstition.
Raja
Rammohan Roy was not merely a religious reformer but a social reformer also.
His greatest achievement was the abolition of Sati in 1929. Raja Rammohan Roy
realized that the practice of Sati was due to the extremely low position of
Hindu women. Therefore he started working as a stout champion of women’s
rights. He worked very hard for years to stop this practice of ‘Sati’. In the
early 1818 he set out to rouse public opinion on the question of Sati. On the
one hand he showed by citing the authority of the oldest sacred books that the
Hindu religion at its best was opposed to the practice and on the other, he appealed
to reason and humanity and compassion of the people. He visited the burining ghats
of Calcutta to try and persuade the relatives of widows to give up their plan
of selfimmolation. His campaign against Sati aroused the opposition of the
orthodox Hindus who bitterly attacked him.
Raja
Rammohan Roy was also deeply opposed to the caste system that prevailed in Indian
society. A humanist and democrat to the core, he wrote and talked against the
caste system. Another important area that concerned him was Hindu theology.
Study of the Vedas and Upanishads gave him ground to show that monotheism was
the original Hindu belief and hence he denounced polytheism and idolatry. In
fact the philosopher did not insist on the creation of a new religion but
merely endeavoured to ‘purify’ the Vedic religion from the crude and most
ignorant superstitions. He proclaimed that there is only one God for all
religions and for all humanity. He wrote in Bengali and English. He was an
ardent promoter
of English education. He was also well versed in the Persian language and some of
his most liberal and rational ideas were expressed in his early writings in
that language.
He
advocated the abolition of polygamy (a practice of man having more than one
wife) and child marriage. He wanted women to be educated and given the right to
inherit property. He condemned the subjugation of women and opposed the
prevailing ideas that women were inferior to men in intellect or in a moral
sense. He advocated the rights of widows to remarry.
To
bring his ideas into practice, Raja Rammohan Roy founded the Brahmo Sabha in
1828 which later came to be known as Brahmo Samaj. It was open to all persons
regardless of their colour, convictions, caste, nationality, and religion. It
emphasised human dignity, opposed idol worship and condemned social evils like sati
pratha. It was not meant lo be a separate religious sect but only a place
where all those who believed in one true God could meet and pray. No images
were allowed and no sacrifices and offerings permitted.
Debendra
Nath Tagore (l817-1905), the son of Dwarkanath Tagore, founder member of Brahmo
Samaj, succeeded Raja Rammohan Roy as the leader of the Brahmo Samaj. He put
new life in the Samaj and propagated Raja Rammohan Roy’s ideas. Keshub Chandra Sen
(l838-1884) took over the leadership of the Samaj from Tagore. The Brahmo Samaj
stood for the principles of individual freedom, national unity, solidarity and
collaboration and the democratisation of all social institutions and relations.
It thus became the first organised vehicle for the expression of national
awakening and inaugurated a new era for the people of India. However, the
Brahmo Samaj was weakened by internal dissensions and its influence remained
confined to urban educated groups. But it left its impact on the intellectual,
social and political life of Bengal.
PRARTHANA
SAMAJ AND RANADE
The
Prarthana Samaj was established in Bombay by Dr. Atma Ram Pandurang (1825-1898)
in 1876 with the objective of rational worship and social reform. The two great
members of this Samaj were Shri R.C. Bhandarkar and Justice Mahadev Govind
Ranade. They devoted themselves to the work of social reform such as
inter-caste dining, intercaste marriage, widow remarriage and improvement of
the lot of women and depressed classes.
Mahavdev
Govind Ranade (1842-1901) devoted his entire life to Prarthana Samaj. He was
the founder of the Widow Remarriage Association (1861) and the Deccan Education
Society. He established the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha as well. To Ranade,
religious reform was inseparable from social reform. He also believed that if
religious ideas were rigid there would be no success in social, economic and
political spheres. MG RAnade was the leader of social reformation and cultural
renaissance in Western India.
Ranade’s
great message to the persons who were involved in social service was “Strength of
numbers we cannot command, but we can command earnestness of conviction,
singleness of devotion, readiness for self-sacrifice, in all honest workers in
the cause.”
Although
Prarthana Samaj was powerfully influenced by the ideas of Brahmo Samaj, it did not
insist upon a rigid exclusion of idol worship and a definite break from the
caste system. It did not regard the Vedas as the last word, nor did it believe
in the doctrine of transmigration of the human soul and incarnation of God. Its
central idea was one positive belief in the unity of God.
DEROZIO
AND YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT
Henry
Lui Vivian Derozio, joined the Hindu College of Calcutta as a teacher. He had come
from Scotland to sell watches in Calcutta, but later made the spread of modern education
in Bengal as his life’s mission.
Derozio
promoted radical ideas through his teaching and by organizing an association
for debate and discussions on literature, philosophy, history and science. He
inspired his followers and students to question all authority. Derozio and his
famous followers, known as the Derzians and Young Bengal, were fiery patriots.
They cherished the ideals of the French Revolution (1789 A.D.) and the liberal
thinking of Britain. Derozio died of cholera at the young age of 22.
The
Young Bengal Movement continued even after Derozio’s dismissal and his sudden death.
Though deprived of leadership, the members of this group continued preaching radical
views through teaching and journalism.
Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar
Another
outstanding reformer in Bengal was Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891 A.D.).
A scholar of great depths, he dedicated himself to the cause of the emancipation
of women. It was due to his sincere efforts that obstacles to the marriage of
widows were removed through a law in 1856. He played a leading role in
promoting education of girls and started and helped the setting up a number of
schools for girls. Vidyasagar did not concern himself much with religious
questions. However, he was against all those who opposed reforms in the name of
religion.
SPREAD
OF THE REFORM MOVEMENTS IN WESTERN AND SOUTHERN INDIA
After
Bengal, the most important region where the movement for reforms spread was western
India. Bal Shastri Jambekar was one of the first reformers in Bombay. He
attacked Brahmanical orthodoxy and tried to reform popular Hinduism.
In
1849, the Parmahansa Mandali was founded in Poona, Satara and other towns of Maharashtra.
Its followers had faith in one God and they opposed caste system. At its meetings,
members took food cooked by low-caste people. They favoured education of women
and supported widow remarriage. Mahadev Ranade believed that without social reforms
it was not possible to achieve any progress in the political and economic
fields. He was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity.
Two
other great reformers in Western India were Gopal Hari Deshmukh Lokahitwari and
Jotirao Govindrao Phule popularly known as Jotiba. They worked for the
upliftment of women, took up the cause of women and downtrodden masses. Jyotiba
with his wife started a girls school in Poona, in 1857. He also opened a school
for the children of the depressed classes. Jotiba Phule was also a pioneer of
the widow remarriage movement inMaharashtra. He challenged the dominance of
Brahmins and worked for organizing and activating the masses. He championed the
cause of villagers and actively worked for rural development
in Maharashtra. Jotiba was given the tile of ‘Mahatma’ for his work for the cause
of the oppressed. In 1873, he founded the Satya-Shodhak to give strength to his
movement and make it popular.
In
the southern parts of the country. Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848-1919)
pioneered the movement in support of widow remarriage and girls education in
Andhra. Veda Samaj founded in Madras in 1864 advocated discarding of caste
distinctions and promotion of widow remarriage and women’s education. It
condemned the superstitions and rituals of orthodox Hinduism and propagated
belief in one supreme God. Chembeti Sridharalu Naidu was the most popular
leader of the Veda Samaj. He translated books of the Veda Samaj in Tamil and
Telugu.
An
important movement particularly significant for the emancipation of the
so-called backward and oppressed sections of Indian society was started by
Shree Narayana Guru (1854-1928) in Kerala. In 1903 he founded the Shree
narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam (SNDP) to carry on the work of social reform.
Shree Narayana Guru considered differences based on caste and religion as
meaningless and advocated what he called ‘One Caste, one Religion and on God’
for all.
SWAMI
DAYANAND SARASWATI (1824-1883) AND ARYA SAMAJ
Attend
a meeting of the Arya Samaj any day. You will find many women attending it.
They are also performing yajana and reading the scriptures. This was the basic
contribution of Mool Shanker an important representative of the religions
reform movement in India from Gujarat. He later came to be known as Dayanand
Saraswati (l824-1883). He founded the Arya Samaj in 1875.
The
most influential movement of religious and social reform in northern India was
started by Dayanand Saraswari. He held that the Vedas contained all the
knowledge imparted to man by God and essentials of modern science could also be
traced in them. He was opposed to idolatry, ritual and priesthood, particularly
to the prevalent caste practices and popular Hinduism as preached by the
Brahmins. He favoured the study of western science. With all this doctrine, he
went about all over the country and in 1875 founded the Arya Samaj in Bombay.
Satyarth
Prakash was his most important book. The use of Hindi in his writings and preachings
made his ideas accessible to the common people of northern India. Arya Samajis opposed
child marriages and encouraged remarriage of widows. It made rapid progress in
Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
A
Network of schools and colleges for boys and girls was established throughout
northern India to promote the spread of education. Dayanand Anglo-Vedic School
of Lahore, which soon developed into a premier college of Punjab, set the
pattern for such institutions. Instruction was imparted through Hindi and
English on modern lines. Lala Hansraj played a leading role in this field. In
1902, Swami Shradhananda started the Gurukul near Hardwar to propagate the more
traditional ideas of education. This was set up on the pattern of ancient
Ashrams.
Arya
Samaj tried to inculcate the spirit of self-respect and self-reliance among the
people of India. This promoted nationalism. At the same time one of its main
objectives was to prevent the conversion of Hindus to other religions. It also
prescribed a purificatory ceremony calld suddhi for those Hindus who had
been converted to other religions like Islam and Christianity.
THE
RAMAKRISHNA MISSION AND SWAMI VIVEKANANDA
Gadadhar
Chattopadhyaya (l836-86) was a poor Brahmin priest who later came to be known
as Ramakrishna Paramahansa: His education did not proceed beyond the elementary
stage and he had no formal education in philosophy and Shastras. He dedicated
his life to God. He believed that there were many roads to God and the service
of man was the service of God, because man was the embodiment of God. Hence
sectarianism had no place in his teachings. He realised the divinity in
humanity and looked upon the service of mankind as a means to salvation.
Narendra
Nath Datta (l863-1902) later known as Swami Vivekananda was the most devoted
pupil of Ramakrishna Paramahansa who carried the message of his Guru Ramakrishna
all over the world, specially in America and Europe.
Vivekananda
was proud of India’s spiritual heritage, but he believed that no individual or nation
can live by holding himself or itself apart from the community of others. He
condemned the caste system, rigid rituals, century old superstitions and
advocated liberty, free thinking and equality.
Vivekananda
was indeed, a patriot from the core of his heart. He had tremendous faith in the
evolution of Indian culture and an intense zeal to revive all that was good and
great in her culture so as to serve her in all possible ways for her onward
march.
Swami Vivekananda laid stress on Ramakrishna’s
teaching on the essential oneness of all religions. He promoted the Vedanta
philosophy which he considered the most rational system.
The
principal feature of Vivekananda’s social philosophy was his insistence on the
upliftment of the masses. For him, service to the poor and downtrodden was the
highest religion. To organise such service, he founded the Ramakrishna Mission
in 1897. This Mission to date has played an important role in providing social
service in times of national distress like famine, floods, and epidemic. Many
schools, hospitals, orphanages are run by it.
In
1893 he participated in the All World Religious Conference (Parliament of
Religions) at Chicago in the United States of America. He argued that Vedanta
was the religion of all and not of the Hindus alone. His address there made a
deep impression on the people of other countries and thus helped to raise the
prestige of Indian culture in the eyes of the world. Though his mission was
mainly of religious nature, he was keenly interested in the improvement of all
aspects of national life. He expressed his concern for the miserable and poor
conditions of the people and said that neglect of the masses is a sin. He
frankly stated,
“It is we who are responsible for all our misery and all our degradation.” He
urged his countrymen to work for their own salvation. For this purpose bands of
workers devoted to this cause were trained through the Ramakrishan Mission.
Thus Vivekananda emphasized social good or social services.
THEOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY AND ANNIE BESANT
Theosophical
society has played an important role in the history of the religion, society
and culture of modern India. It was founded in the USA in 1875 by a Russian
spiritualist Madame H.P. Blavatsky and an American Col. H.S. Olcott. Its
objective was to promote studies in ancient religions, philosophies and
science, develop the divine powers latent in man and form a universal
brotherhood of man.
The
Society was introduced to India in 1879 and its headquarters were set up at
Adyar near Madras in 1886. Its influence spread under Annie Beasant in 1893 who
played an important role in India’s struggle for freedom. She and her
associates advocated the revival and strengthening of the ancient religions of
Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. They recognized the doctrine of the
transmigration of the soul. They also preached the universal brotherhood of
man. They helped to impart to the educated Indians a sense of pride in their
own country. Annie Beasant’s movement was a movement led and supported by
westerners who glorified Indian religious and philosophical traditions. This
helped Indians to recover their self-confidence.
In
fact the activities of Annie Besant in the field of education were more
significant. She founded the Central Hindu College at Banaras which she later
handed over to Madan Mohan Malaviya. He developed that college into the Banaras
Hindu University. Although the Theosophical Movement did not enjoy mass
popularity, its work under the leadership of Annie Besant for awakening of the
Indians was remarkable. She contributed a great deal to the development of
national spirit in Indians. The headquarters of the Theosophical Society at
Adyar became a centre of knowledge with a library of rare Sanskrit books.
The
society fought against untouchability and advocated upliftment of women. Annie
Besant dedicated her whole life to the cause of Indian society. She described
her mission in these words: “The Indian work is first of all the revival, the
strengthening and uplifting of the ancient religions. This has brought with it
a new self-respect, and pride in the past; belief in the future, and as an
inevitable result, a great wave of patriotic life, the beginning of the rebuilding
of a nation”.
One
of Mrs. Besant’s many achievements in India was the establishment of the
Central Hindu School. Annie Besant made India her permanent home and took a
prominent part in Indian politics. “The needs of India are, among others, the
development of a national spirit and an education founded on Indian ideas and
enriched, not dominated by the thoughts and culture of the West”. She always
supported Home Rule for Indians and established a Home Rule League in 1916 to
spread the message of self rule.
Branches
of the Theosophical Society were opened all over India and its Journal Theosophist
had a wide circulation. The Society gave a helping hand in social and
religious reform, especially in south India. Most of the work done by it was
influenced by Annie Besant.
ALIGARH
MOVEMENT AND SAYYID AHMAD KHAN
You
have just read about reform within the Hindu religion, its practices and social
institutions. A similar reform movement was also taking place within Islam. The
Muslim upper classes had tended to avoid contact with Western education and
culture and it was only after the revolt of 1857 that modern ideas of religious
reform began to appear. The beginning was made by the Muhammedan Literary
Society founded in Calcutta in 1863 founded by Nawab Abdul Latif 1828-1893. It
promoted discussion of religious, social and political questions in the light
of modern ideas and encouraged upper and middle class Muslims to adopt Western
education. It also played an important role for Muslim Unity. The Muslim masses
were also influenced by movements carried on by the Chishti sufis who preached not
only submission to God but also promoted the veneration of saints. Another
movement is associated with Shah Waliullah in Delhi, who opposed the unorthodox
religious practices and revived the Shia sect and strict monotheism. The
philosophical and learned tradition of the Firangi Mahal in Lucknow was
incorporated into the new educational syllabus and propagated throughout India
during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Sharitulla of Bengal was the
leader of the Faraizi movement Bengal which took up the cause of the peasants
and even spoke against the caste system among the Muslims.
The
most notable of the Muslim reformers was Sayyid Ahmed of Rai Bareilly, in Uttar
Pradesh. He attracted the Muslim artisans of the declining weaving towns of
Allahabad and Patna finding a ready audience and giving the common people
dignity and an identity through a common faith at a time of social dislocation.
He realised that unless the Muslims adapted themselves to the changed
circumstances of British rule, they would be deprived of all new opportunities for
status and prosperity. He was highly impressed by modern scientific thought and
worked all his life to reconcile it with Islam. He interpreted the Quran in the
light of rationalism and science. He urged the people to develop a critical
approach and freedom of thought. He also warned against fanaticism,
narrow-mindedness and exclusiveness.
He asked the people to be broadminded and tolerant. In 1883 he said: “Now both
of us (Hindus and Muslims) live on the air of India, drink the holy waters of
the Ganga and Jamuna. We both feed upon the products of the Indian soil… we are
a nation and the progress and welfare of the country, and both of us, depend on
our unity, mutual sympathy, and love, while our mutual disagreement, obstinacy
and opposition and illfeeling are sure to destroy us”.
Syed
Ahmed Khan rightly felt that isolation would harm the Muslim community and to prevent
that he did his best to create a link with the progressive cultural forces of
the outside world. He worked hard to remove the hostility of the British rulers
towards the Muslims whom they considered as their real enemies.
He
felt that the religious and social life of the Muslims could be improved only
with the help of modem Western scientific knowledge and culture. Therefore,
promotion of modern education was the first task. As an official, he founded
schools at many places. He got many Western books translated into Urdu. He
started the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 at Aligarh. It was meant
to be a centre for spreading Western sciences and culture. Later, this college
grew into the Aligarh Muslim University.
The
liberal, social and cultural movement started by Sayyid Ahmad Khan among the
Muslims is known as the Aligarh Movement as it originated in Aligarh. The
Anglo-Oriental College was the centre of this movement. It aimed at promoting
modern education among Muslims without weakening the ties with Islam. It became
the central educational institution for Indian Muslims.
The
Aligarh Movement was largely responsible for the Muslim revival that followed.
It provided a focal point for the scattered Muslim population in different
parts of the country. It gave them a common fund of ideas and a common language
- Urdu. A Muslim press was developed for the compilation of works in Urdu.
Sayyid
Ahmad’s efforts extended to the social sphere as well. He worked for social
reforms. He wanted women to be educated and advocated the removal of the
purdah. He was also against polygamy.
There
were several other socio-religious movements which in one way or the other
helped the national awakening of the Muslims. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad had founded
the Ahmediya Movement in 1899. Under this movement, a number of schools and
colleges were opened all over the country, imparting modern education. In the
field of religion the followers of this movement emphasized the universal and
humanitarian character of Islam. They favoured the unity among Hindus and
Muslims.
One
of the greatest poets of modern India, Muhammad Iqbal, (1876-1938) also
profoundly influenced through his poetry, the philosophical and religious
outlook of the younger generation of Muslims as well as of Hindus. He urged the
adoption of a dynamic outlook that would help change the world. He was
basically a humanist.
REFORM
MOVEMENTS AMONG PARSIS
Religious
reform began among the Parsis in Mumbai in the middle of the 19th century. In 1851,
the Rehnumai Maz’dayasan Sabha or Religious Reform Association was founded by
Nauroji Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee and others. They started a
journal Rast Goftar, for the purpose of social-religious reforms among the
Parsis. They also played an important role in the spread of education,
specially among girls. They campaigned against the entrenched orthodoxy in the
religious field and initiated the modernization of Parsi social customs
regarding the education of girls marriage and the social position of women in
general. In course of time, the Parsis became socially the most westernized section
of Indian society.
RELIGIOUS
REFORM AMONG SIKHS
Religious
reform among the Sikhs was started at the end of the 19th Century when the Khalsa
College started at Amritsar. Through the efforts of the Singh Sabhas (1870) and
with British support, the Khalsa College was founded at Amritsar in 1892. This
college and schools set up as a result of similar efforts, promoted Gurumukhi,
Sikh learning and Punjabi literature as a whole.
After
1920 the Sikh momentum gained momentum when the Akali Movement rose in Punjab.
The chief object of the Akalis was to improve the management of the Gurudwaras or
Sikh Shrines that were under the control of priests or Mahants who treated them
as their private property. In 1925, a law was passed which gave the right of
managing Gurudwaras to the Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee.
IMPACT
OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT
The
British wanted to appease the orthodox upper section of society. As a result
only two important laws were passed.
Some legal measures were introduced to raise the status of women. For example
Sati was declared illegal (1829). Infanticide was declared illegal. Widow
remarriage was permitted by a law passed in 1856. Marriageable age of girls was
raised to ten by a law passed in 1860.
A
law passed in 1872, sanctioned inter-caste and inter-communal marriages. The
other law passed in 1891, aimed at discouraging child marriage. For preventing
child marriage, the Sharda Act was passed in 1929. According to it a girl below
14 and a boy below 18 could not be married. In the 20th century and especially
after 1919 the Indian national movement became the main propagator of social
reform. Increasingly, the reformers took recourse to propaganda in the Indian
language to reach the masses. They also used novels, dramas, short stories,
poetry, the Press and in the thirties (1930’s), the cinema too spread their
views.
Numerous
individuals, reform societies, and religious organizations worked hard to
spread education among women, to prevent marriage of young children, to bring
women out of the purdah, to enforce monogamy, and to enable middle class women
to take up professions or public employment. Due to all these efforts Indian
women played an active and important role in the struggle for independence of
the country. As a result many superstitions disappeared and many others were on
their way out. Now, it was no longer a sin to travel to foreign countries.
- Raja Rammohan Roy can be regarded as the central figure of India’s awakening for championing the spread of modern education, science and technology and for his relentless fight against many social evils.
- R.G Bhandarkar and M.G. Ranade carried out their work of religious reforms in Maharashtra through the Prarthana Samaj by propagating inter-caste marriages, freedom from priestly domination and improvement of the lot of women.
- Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj and pleaded for the right of individuals to interpret Vedas and free themselves from the tyranny of priests. Besides all this, the organisation fought against untouchability and caste rigidity as well as worked for promoting modern education.
- Swami Vivekananda, a great humanist, through his Ramakrishna Mission condemned religious narrow mindedness, advocated free thinking and emphasised on service for the poor.
- The Theosophical Society, under the guidance of Annie Besant, promoted studies of ancient Indian religions, philosophies and doctrines.
- Religious reforms among the Muslims were carried out by Sayyid Ahmad Khan who encouraged Muslims to adopt modern education; denounced polygamy, purdah system and spoke against religious intolerance, ignorance and irrationlism.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL
MOVEMENTS IN MODERN INDIA
Ø
Muhammadan Literary Society was founded at
Calcutta to encourage the spread of western education among the muslims middle
and upper class.
Ø
Pagal Paanthis sect was founded by Karam Shah at
Maimansingh district of North Bengal. Karam Rhah’s son tipe made it a political
movement from religious movement. He revolted against the landlords and the
Britishers who were patron of these landlords.
Ø
The women university at Poona was established by
V.O. Karve in 1916, Carlyle Circular come in1910, Hunter Commission on
education was set up in 1882-83 and establishment of the Aligarh Muslim
University by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 1877.
Ø
The Central Hindu School at Banaras which served
as nucleus of the Banaras Hindu University was established by Mrs. Annie
Besant. Banaras Hindu University was established by Madan Mohan Malviya in
1916, while Central Hindu school was established in1898.
Ø
The Theosophical Society was established by H.S.
Alcott and Madan H.P. Balavatsuy in U.S.A. It shifted its Besent became its
President in 1893. The theosophists, advocated the revival and strengthening of
Hinduism, Zarartrianism and Buddhism.
Ø
Rehnumai Mazdayaran was a parsi reform movement
which started from 1851 by Dodabhai Naoroji, S.S. Bengalee and Naroji Furdenji.
Ø
Satya Shodhak Samaj was formed by Jotirao
Govindrao Phule. Self Respect movement was started by E.V. Ramaswami Naicker,
Sarva Shodhak Samaj was started by Shahu Maharaj and Namdhari movement was
started by Ram Singh.
Ø
In 1887 the Native Marriage Act came into being,
which prohibited polygamy and marriage of girl child below 14 years of age. But
this act could not do much. So in 1891 due to the effort of parsi reformer
Behramji Malabari and Bengal reformer Keshavachandra Sen Age and Consent Act
was introduced. This act prohibited the marriage of girls below 12 years of
age.
Ø
“Nibandhmala” was written by Vishnusastri
Chippulankar, who was an associate of Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
Ø
The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in 1856
during the Governor Generalship of Lord Dalhousie. By this Act the widow
remarriage was legalized and the child born due to such marriage was declared
legal.
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Raja Rammohan Roy
|
Ø Proclaimed
that the purest from of Hindu religion was to be found in Upanishads
|
Ø
Keshab Chandra Sen
|
Ø Observed
that Brahmoism should become a sort of universal religion
|
Ø
Dayanand Saraswati
|
Ø Identified
Hinduism with the religion as founded in the Vedas
|
Ø
Ramakrishna Paramahansa
|
Ø Proclaimed
that the purest from of Hindu religion was to be found in Upanishads
|
Ø
Raja Rammohan Roy proclaimed that the purest
form of Hindu religion was to be found in Upanishads. Keshab Chandra Sen
observed that Brahmoism should become a sort of universal religion. Dayanand
Saraswati identified Hinduism with the religion as founded in the Vedas.
Ramkrishna Paramahansa emphasized that there are many roads to God.
Ø
The cultural background of revolutionary
terrorism in Bengal was strengthened by the writings of Bankim Chandra
Chattopadhyay.
Ø
The term “Sanskritization” was coined by leading
Indian anthropologist M.N. Srinivas. According to this theory, the lower castes
tried to assert themselves by borrowing and imitating customs and manner of the
upper castes.
Ø
Modernization of Muslims in India was initiated
by Sir. Syed Ahmed Khan. He believed that Muslims could not develop until they
get English education. Aligarh movement was started by him where English
education was given to Muslims.
Ø
Deoband School’s not associated with Sayyaid
Ahmad Madani. It was established by Muhammad Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid Ahmad
Gangohi with the help of ulemas in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. The
main aim of this school was to train the religious leader of the Muslim
community.
Ø
Dayal Singh Majithia was associated with
Newspaper, Education and British army.
Ø
Sir William Jones established Asiatic Society of
Bengal in 1784.
Ø
Satyasodhak Samaj was established by Jyotiba
Phule at Poona in 1873 A.D.
Ø
Henery Vivian Derozia launched his Young Bengal
Movement in 1826 for the freedom of the press, Jobs for Students and against
the exploitation of Zamindars.
Ø
The Rajmundari social reform association was
formed by Virasalingam to encourage widow re-marriage in 1871.
Ø
Swami Dayanand Saraswati wrote “Satyarth
Prakash”, Lala Munshi Ram established. “Gurukul”, Pandit Shiv Narayan Agnihotri
formed “Dev Samaj” in 1887 and Lala Hansraj established Anglo-Vedic College.
Ø
Gangendranath Tagore is associated with
realistic style of painting. Devika Rani is associated with Films. She got Dada
Saheb Phalke award. Rukmini Devi Arundale is a famous classical dancer while
Allauddin Khan, the resident of Maihar (M.P.) is associated with Hindustani
classical music.
Ø
“Kalindi” is not written by Rabindra Nath Tagore
while the rest three pairs are correct.
Ø
“Condition of India” was written by India
league. “Mother India” is written by Katherine Mayo, “Farewell to India” was
written by Edward Thmopson and “passage to India” was written by E.M. Forster.
Ø
Tattvabodhani Sabha was formed by Debendranath
Tagore, Darul-Ulum-Deband was started by Rashid Ahmed Gangohi, Delhi. Urdu
Renaissance Association was formed by Zaka Ullah and Sarvajanik Sabha was
formed by Ganesh Vasudev Joshi.
Ø
Baba Ramsingh is associated with the Namdhari
Movement. Mirza Ghulam Ahmed started the Ahmadiya Movement in 1889 at Kadiya
district of Punjab. Mukund Das started ‘Satya Mahima Dharma’ movement and
Naroji Funduji and Dadabhai Naoroji started social reform movement among the
Parsis and formed Rahnumai Mazdayasan Sabha.
Ø
The Film “Achut Kanya” was directed by Himanshu
Rai. Film “Apna Ghar” was directed by K.A. Abbas and “Neecha Nagar” was
directed by Chetan Anand. All these movies were on burning social issue like
problem of caste differentiation in society and problems of womens.
Ø
Subbrayulu Chetty with Veda Samaj. Swami
Narayana Guru had written Jati Mimansa. Raghunathaya was associated with
Upasana Sabha and Gajalu Lakshmanarasu Chetty wrote Cresent.
Ø
Sarala Devi is associated with Jobaner Jhara
Pata and Pandita Ramabai was the High Caste Hindu Woman. Rameshwari Nehru wrote
“Stree Darpan” and Hukumo Devi formed Kanya Hitkarni Sabha.
Ø
Sayyad Ahmad Barellvi wrote
“Tarikh-i-Muhamaditya”. He was associated with Wahabi movement. Muhammad Qasim
Nanautawi started Dar-ul-ulum Deoband. Mirza Gulam Ahmad founder of Ahmaditya movement
wrote “Barahim”. Zaka Ullah founded Delhi Urdu Rennaisance Society.
Ø
This statement was made by Swami Vivekanand. He
said that every person created by the God, whether he is of lower castes,
higher castes or of any nationality he is equal in the eyes of God.
Ø
Munshi premchand is the doyen of Hindi
literature. “Mahajani Sabhyata” is one of the vest written work of Munshi
Premchand along with “Kajan”, “Godan”, Premasharam” etc. In the initial years,
Munshi Premchand use to write in Urdu but later he shifted to Hindi literature.
Ø
Nawab Abdul Latif established Mohammedan
Literary Society in 1863 at Calcutta. It was a forum of Muslim intellectuals.
Ø
The ‘Nair Service Society’ was founded by M.
Padmanabhan Pillai, who was a Nair himself. It was formed for the upliftment of
Nair castes.
Ø
Arya Mahila Sabha was founded by Pandita
Ramabai, who was an eminent member of Prarthana Samaj. She did a lot of work
for improving the condition of the women in India.
Ø
M.G. Ranade established Vidhwa Vivaha Mandal in
Maharashtra to spread the message of Widow remarriage.
Ø
Mir Saiyad Muhammad led the Mahadi movement for
the reformation in Islamic religious practices during the time of Islam Shah.
Ø
The Theosophical Society was founded by a
Russian woman madam Blavatsky and an English Colonal H.S Olcott in America. In
1882, in Adyar near Madras, its international Headquarter was shifted. After
the death of olcott in 1907, Anni Besant became its president.
Ø
Swami Vivekananda was a great advocater of
“Yoga”. He wrote several books on Yoga like Gyana Yoga, Karma Yoga and Raja
Yoga.
Ø
Bal Gangadhar Tilak opposed raising the minimum
age of marriage for girls from 10 to 12 years as embodied in the Age of Consent
Act, 1891 because his view was that this reform should not be imposed by the
government. It should come from within the society then only this law could be
successful.
Ø
Gopal Hari Desmukh aslo called “Lokahitavadi”
for his social welfare works, suggested the removal of all discrimination of
caste and race and adoption of saiva form of marriage prescribed in
“Mahanirvana Tantra”.
Ø
Konda Venkatappayya was not a member of Andhra
Mahasabha that was organized in the early twentieth century to demand a
separate linguistic state for the Telugu-Speaking people.
Ø
The social reform in India saw a spate in early
decades in nineteenth century because British considered it a precondition for
spread of English education. Social reforms like Raja Ram Mohan Roy also
advocated for English education.
Ø
Rabindra Nath Tagore was deeply impressed by the
success of Russian revolution in 1917. He wrote poems hailing this revolution.
Ø
Madhusudhan Dutt wrote Meghanbadh Kavya. Bankim
Chandra wrote Devi Chaudhurani and Dinabandhu Mitra wrote Neeldarpan These all
books were written in Bengali.
Ø
B.M. Malabari was in the forefront of making
efforts leading to making the Age of Consent Act of 1891.
Ø
Mahadev Govind Ranade, a great social reformer
of Maharashtra was the founder of Widow Marriage Association in 1861.
Ø
Raja Ram Mohan Roy advocated the substitution of
English for Persian not Persian for English as the official language of the
courts of Law.
