India's Economic Growth - General Studies -HIMALAI IAS

INDIA’S  ECONMIC GROWTH –HIMALAI IAS

The government on Friday cut its estimate of annual growth for the fiscal year to 4.9 per cent from 5 per cent because of a contraction in the manufacturing and mining sectors.

The revision down will do little to help the Congress party-led ruling alliance, which faces an uphill battle in a general election due by May amid allegations of economic mismanagement, corruption scams and high inflation.

Last week, the Statistics Ministry revised down economic growth for the previous fiscal year to 4.5 per cent - the slowest pace during the decade Manmohan Singh has been prime minister - from an earlier estimate of 5 per cent.

Farm output is expected to grow 4.6 per cent in the fiscal year to March 31, against 1.4 per cent growth a year ago, while the manufacturing sector is seen contracting by 0.2 per cent compared with 1.1 per cent growth in 2012/13, the Statistics Ministry said in a statement.
Finance Minister P Chidambaram expressed satisfaction over the growth projections and exuded confidence that it will improve significantly in the next fiscal year (FY15).
"I am confident that the final estimate will be not less than 5 per cent for the whole year", he said.
Last year, the Finance Minister had projected gross domestic product (GDP) growth of 6.1-6.7 per cent in 2013/14 in his annual budget, but lately lowered the estimates to about 5 per cent.

Chidambaram is widely expected to announce measures, including a cut in excise duties on some products, to push up manufacturing output when he presents an interim budget for the coming fiscal year in Parliament on February 17.

The full-year budget will, however, be presented by the next finance minister after the elections.

Asia's third-largest economy grew at 4.6 per cent annually in the first half of the current fiscal year, down from 5.3 per cent in the corresponding period a year ago.

The services sector, which contributes about 60 percent to gross domestic product, is likely to grow at 6.9 per cent in the current fiscal year, compared with 7 per cent growth a year ago, the data showed.

The construction sector, contributing nearly 8 per cent to GDP, is estimated to grow at 1.7 per cent from 1.1 percent a year ago.

"The data shows that there is an overall slowdown in the economy with construction being very weak together with manufacturing," said Saugata Bhattacharya, chief economist at Axis Bank.

"Going ahead, we expect GDP growth to definitely pick up to around 5.2-5.3 per cent depending on the policies of the next government," he said.

Increases in interest rates by the Reserve Bank of India to rein in near-double digit retail inflation - three times since Raghuram Rajan took charge in September - have also dampened chances of early economic recovery.

"Notwithstanding a favourable monsoon in 2013 and healthy agricultural performance, the pickup in rural demand has been uneven and weaker than expected," said Aditi Nayar, an economist at ICRA, the Indian arm of rating agency Moody's.

The economy grew at more than 9 per cent annually for three straight years during the 2005/06 to 2007/08 period, before being hit by the global financial crisis and high interest rates amid a slower global recovery.

Slowing demand
This year, the government has cleared hundreds of much-delayed projects such as power plants, mines and ports, but the impact is expected to be visible only in next year's growth numbers, due to a time lag in actual investments.

Last week, the Reserve Bank of India in its quarterly review said the weakening of private consumption and investment demand had dampened prospects of a second-half pick-up in GDP growth.

Consumption, which contributes about 70 per cent to the near $1.8-trillion ( or nearly Rs. 110 lakh crore) economy, is expected to grow 4.4 per cent in fiscal 2013/14, down from 5.2 per cent the previous year, the data showed.

Indian makers of durable goods such as washing machines, refrigerators and electronic items face a bad year, as output of these goods contracted 12.6 per cent during the period from April to November.

Annual car sales declined by about 5 per cent in the first three quarters, hit by high inflation, fuel prices and interest rates.

ANALYSIS

The gross domestic product (GDP) for Q3 FY14 came in at 4.7 percent, up from its Q3 FY13 growth of 4.4 percent (YoY), but down from it previous quarter growth of 4.8 percent. A CNBC-TV18 poll had expected the growth to be around 4.8 percent.

 The Central Statistics Office (CSO) had estimated a growth of 4.9 percent. The agricultural sector grew at only 3.6% versus 4.6% quarter-on-quarter. The manufacturing growth saw a negative trend coming in at - 1.9% versus 1% quarter-on-quarter.

The mining sector too reflected the slowdown growing by -1.6 percent versus -2 percent (YoY). Electricity, gas and water supply grew at 5 percent versus 7.7 percent Data services, meanwhile grew by 7.6 percent, up 1 percent on a year-on-year basis while trade, hotels, trans growth, that represent the unorganised sector, came in at 4.3 percent versus 5.9 percent (YoY).

 A GDP growth of 4.9 percent for FY13, as targeted by the CSO, now seems more and more unlikely. Is Indian growth still in a trough? While the growth numbers are likely to be revised going ahead, the entire GDP growth seems to be supported bu the huge jump seen in the finance component of the GDP, says Samiran Chakrabarty, head of research, Standard Chartered Bank.

Chakrabarty further adds, “A complete disconnect between the real sector growth and the financial sector growth cannot be sustained for very long.” “The 4.9 percent GDP growth that is the estimate of the government is going to be seriously in doubt with manufacturing being almost flat. Just services cannot lift these numbers beyond a point and financial services having done its best in the Q3. So, in Q4 we cannot expect that they will also give a sterling performance,” explains UR Bhat, managing director, Dalton Capital Advisors.

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Navy Warned Government About Vulnerable-General Studies -HIMALI IAS

NAVY HAD WARNED GOVERNMENT ABOUT 'VULNERABLE' STATE OF SUBMARINES IN 2010-HIMALAI IAS

The Indian Navy had repeatedly warned the government since 2010 that the poor state of its submarine division, both operationally and in terms of number of vessels, leaves India very vulnerable to attacks by sea.

In a confidential report to the Prime Minister's Office and the Defence Ministry, the Navy had expressed concern that by 2015, India would be at its lowest submarine capability ever. This means that by next year, India's sub-surface strength and anti-access capability in the Indian Ocean region will be its worst ever.

The Naval Headquarters, sources said, has reiterated that every year, but nothing has moved on new acquisitions.

India's current submarine strength is precarious - it has only seven conventional subs. It needs a full fleet of at least 15 subs, including new vessels and older ones refitted.

As of now, even if matters are fast-tracked, the country can only begin acquiring news subs by the end of 2015 or early 2016, sources said. Six Scorpene submarines are being built at Mazgaon Docks but the first one will be available only by 2015-end or early 2016 at the earliest.

In more worry, even as this critical capability has eroded, there has been an increase in both submarine strength and capacity of the Pakistan Navy and that of the Chinese PLA Navy. The sorry state of India's submarines was tragically illustrated this week when two officers were killed and seven sailors injured in a fire on the 25-year-old INS Sindhuratna while it was being sea tested after being refitted without replacing the old batteries

Navy chief Admiral DK Joshi, in an unprecedented move, resigned the same evening, taking moral responsibility of this and a series of other accidents that took place on his watch.

In August last year, a dockside blast had killed all 18 sailors aboard another submarine, the INS Sindhurakshak. There have been eight other mishaps, mostly minor, involving Navy assets in recent

INDIA SUBMARINE CAPABILITIES –HIMALAI IAS

The Indian Navy currently operates 14 diesel powered submarines, which are based at Visakhapatnam on the east coast and Mumbai on the west coast.
[1] An additional west-coast base is also being constructed at Karwar.
[2] The backbone of the fleet is formed by ten Kilo-class Type 877EM - or Sindhugosh-class - units that are being progressively retrofitted to accommodate the Klub/3M-54E Alfa cruise missile system. India also operates four Shishumar-class Type 209/1500 vessels designed by Howaldtswerke-Deutsche Werft (HDW) in Germany. While the first two vessels from the Shishumar-class were built at HDW in Germany, boats three and four were constructed at the Mazagon Dock in Mumbai from packages supplied by HGW.
 [3] All four of the Shishumars have undergone refit since they were commissioned and together they form the 10th submarine squadron based at Mumbai.
[4] The fleet's remaining vessels consist of two aging Foxtrot-class boats, which are currently being used for training purposes. In addition to the 14 active submarines, however, India is also in the process of constructing six Scorpène-class boats that are being indigenously built at the Mazagon Dock in Mumbai, albeit under the supervision of French technicians.

[5]  On August 14, 2013, a series of explosions tore through the INS Sindhurakshak, the ninth of India's ten Sindhughosh-class submarines. As a result of the blasts, which were caused by unintentional weapons detonations, a fire broke out onboard, and the submarine sank at its berth. The boat had recently returned from an extensive upgrade in Russia and was docked in Mumbai at the time of the accident. Eighteen sailors perished after being trapped in the submerged hull of the vessel.

[6] Official sources have stated that it is "highly unlikely" that the Sindhurakshak will be repaired and returned to service. The accident has added to the Indian Navy's concerns regarding the depletion of its aging submarine fleet. More than half of India's subs have completed 75 percent of their operational lives and some are even serving beyond their maximum service lives. By 2014-2015, only 9 of the total 14 diesel-electric vessels will be operational, due to necessary overhaul and repair processes.
[7] In addition to its fleet of diesel-electric submarines, India is also in the process of developing an indigenously built nuclear-submarine capability. While India discussed the potential of nuclear powered submarines as early as the 1960's, the development of the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) submarine program didn't begin until 1984.
 [8] Nonetheless, in July 2009 India launched its first ATV submarine, the INS Arihant, at the Ship Building Centre in Vishakapatnam.
[9] Codenamed the S-2, the INS Arihant is expected to begin sea trials in mid-August 2013 and will subsequently be inducted into the Indian Navy.
[10] The Arihant is the first of four Arihant-class submarines that will perform a strategic nuclear role. The second, the INS Aridhaman, is also being constructed in Vishakapatnam, and is expected to be launched by the end of 2013 or the first quarter of 2014.
 [11] The vessels are likely to carry 12 Sagarika (K-15) submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBM) with a range of around 700km.
 [12] Ultimately, the INS Arihant may carry long range 4 K-4 (3,500km) SLBM's in lieu of the 12 K-15 delivery systems.
 [13] In addition, the INS Arihant will carry torpedoes and submarine launched cruise missiles (SLCM)
[14] India's nuclear powered submarine program is under the management and operations (M&O) of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), and the Indian Navy at Visakhapatnam.
[15]The Indian Navy's area of operation includes the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Bay of Bengal. These waters include numerous sea lines of communication (SLOC) chokepoints, such as the Strait of Hormuz, Bab El Mandeb, and the Malacca Straits. Almost 97% of India's foreign trade by volume and 60% of the world's sea-borne trade and energy resources are transported through these strategic bottlenecks. This share of critical global trade is likely to be amplified by the growing energy demands and industrial exports of East and Southeast Asia.
[16]Consequently, one of the Indian Navy's fundamental tasks involves the establishment of sea control to protect its vital SLOCs. It has traditionally paid particular attention to Pakistani Navy developments, as India and Pakistan have had numerous hot and cold conflicts over the years. Gradually, though, the focus of the Indian Navy is shifting to the Chinese Navy, as acknowledged in the recently publicized Indian Maritime Doctrine. This document reiterates earlier calls for a stronger deterrent capability against foreign intervention by non-littoral navies.
 [17] With this in mind, India has been modernizing its fleet and has been continually interested in procuring nuclear attack and diesel submarines, establishing two aircraft carrier groups, and developing new cruise missiles.
[18] Indian officials have repeatedly indicated their concerns over China's progress on nuclear submarine construction.
[19] Deterrence against non-littoral navies is not limited to China, however. The recent and planned acquisitions of naval vessels by a number of ASEAN nations are also mentioned in the doctrine.
[20] In addition, the deployment of a US carrier task force to the Bay of Bengal during the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war is unlikely to have been forgotten. As such, the continued US presence at Diego Garcia and Bahrain may represent a concern to the Indian Navy.
[21]Aside from sea control and denial roles, the Indian Navy executes counter-terrorism, anti-drug trafficking, and anti-piracy operations within its area of interest. These roles are complicated not only by the large amount of shipping traffic, but also by the size of India's exclusive economic zone of 2.02 million square kilometers, to which 1.5 million square kilometers will be added in 2004 in accordance with international treaties.
[22] The aforementioned choke points, in particular, represent attractive targets for potential terrorist attacks. In addition, various territorial disputes with India's neighbors remain unresolved and could lead to renewed tensions. For instance, oil and gas exploration is underway in the Sir Creek Estuary, the boundary of which is debated by Pakistan. Bangladesh and India have also both laid claim to New Moore/Purbasha Island (or South Talpatty as it is known in Bangladesh).
[23]India's ambitions for a sea-based nuclear deterrent were acknowledged in 1998. After executing a number of nuclear tests, the government declared that its future minimum nuclear deterrent (MND) would be based on a triad: a combination of airborne, naval, and land-based platforms. India's maritime doctrine further clarifies this statement by specifically calling for the establishment of a submarine-based MND.
 [24] The triad could be completed with the successful conclusion of India's ATV program, a lease of nuclear submarines, or perhaps, to a lesser extent with the acquisition of air-independent propulsion (AIP) submarines.
[25] India has had experience leasing a nuclear-powered submarine: from 1988 to 1991 it leased a Project 670 Skat (NATO name Charlie I) class nuclear-powered cruise missile submarine from the Soviet Union, the K-43 (renamed Chakra while in Indian service). The reactors were operated by a Soviet crew and the vessel was returned to the Soviet Union.
[26] In order to gain further experience operating nuclear submarines, India has begun the ten-year lease of a Russian Project 971 Schuka-B (NATO designation Akula II) class vessel, a deal costing the country an estimated USD 920 million.
[27] In preparation for the lease, around 300 Indian personnel underwent training at a special facility in Sosnovy Bor, near St. Petersburg. On April 4, 2012, Defense Minister A K Antony commissioned the K-152 Nerpa into the Indian Navy, rechristening it the INS Chakra II.
[28] The Chakra II is armed with 300-km Klub missiles, unlike the Russian Navy's Shchuka B submarines, which carry cruise missiles with a striking range of 3,000 km.
[29]Given the various tasks and increasing role assigned to the Indian Navy, earlier strategic reviews and the Project 75 procurement plan have allegedly called for the procurement of 24 submarines to "maintain adequate operational force levels." These boats should be comprised of two locally built submarine classes.
 [30] On October 6, 2005, India signed a contract with France's Armaris (a joint venture between France's DCN and Spain's Navantia, formerly Izar) for six Scorpène-class vessels with an option for an additional six units, to be constructed at the Mazagon Shipyard in Mumbai. Armaris are to provide technical advisers and supply the combat and command systems, underwater sensors and communications. The six vessels will carry Exocet SM 39 missiles supplied by MBDA.
[31] It was initially planned that DCN would deliver the first Scorpene in 2012, with the other vessels to follow over five years. However, complex procurement procedures and a failure to renew contracts have led to significant delays; it is now expected that the first boat will be ready for commissioning no sooner than late 2016. India is reportedly considering the installation of MESMA, the French AIP system, in the last two vessels.
[32] New Delhi has also announced plans to issue a tender for six additional submarines. There are several possible contenders for the bid: DCNS with the Scorpène; Germany's HDW with the Type 214; Russia's Rubin Design Bureau with its Amur 1650; and the Spanish shipbuilder Navantia, with the S-80A.
[33]In 2004, Italy's Fincanteri entered a joint venture with Russia's Rubin Naval Design Bureau to develop a new diesel-electric submarine, the s1000, based on the Amur SSK and featuring AIP technology.
[34] India was the first country to receive a briefing on the new submarine and it reportedly considered an Italian offer to built six boats for $3.5 billion but there was no subsequent purchase agreement.

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Cloud Computing - General Studies - HIMALAI IAS

CLOUD COMPUTING

What is the cloud? 

Cloud computing is receiving a great deal of attention, both in publications and among users, from individuals at home to the U.S. government. Yet it is not always clearly defined.  Cloud computing is a subscription-based service where you can obtain networked storage space and computer resources. One way to think of cloud computing is to consider your experience with email. Your email client, if it is Yahoo!, Gmail, Hotmail, and so on, takes care of housing all of the hardware and software necessary to support your personal email account. When you want to access your email you open your web browser, go to the email client, and log in. The most important part of the equation is having internet access. Your email is not housed on your physical computer; you access it through an internet connection, and you can access it anywhere. If you are on a trip, at work, or down the street getting coffee, you can check your email as long as you have access to the internet. Your email is different than software installed on your computer, such as a word processing program. When you create a document using word processing software, that document stays on the device you used to make it unless you physically move it. An email client is similar to how cloud computing works. Except instead of accessing just your email, you can choose what information you have access to within the cloud. 

How can you use the cloud? 

The cloud makes it possible for you to access your information from anywhere at any time. While a traditional computer setup requires you to be in the same location as your data storage device, the cloud takes away that step. The cloud removes the need for you to be in the same physical location as the hardware that stores your data. Your cloud provider can both own and house the hardware and software necessary to run your home or business applications. This is especially helpful for businesses that cannot afford the same amount of hardware and storage space as a bigger company. Small companies can store their information in the cloud, removing the cost of purchasing and storing memory devices. Additionally, because you only need to buy the amount of storage space you will use, a business can purchase more space or reduce their subscription as their business grows or as they find they need less storage space. One requirement is that you need to have an internet connection in order to access the cloud. This means that if you want to look at a specific document you have housed in the cloud, you must first establish an internet connection either through a wireless or wired internet or a mobile broadband connection. The benefit is that you can access that same document from wherever you are with any device that can access the internet. These devices could be a desktop, laptop, tablet, or phone. This can also help your business to function more smoothly because anyone who can connect to the internet and your cloud can work on documents, access software, and store data. Imagine picking up your smartphone and downloading a .pdf document to review instead of having to stop by the office to print it or upload it to your laptop. This is the freedom that the cloud can provide for you or your organization. 

Types of clouds 

There are different types of clouds that you can subscribe to depending on your needs. As a home user or small business owner, you will most likely use public cloud services.

1. Public Cloud - A public cloud can be accessed by any subscriber with an internet connection and access to the cloud space.

2. Private Cloud - A private cloud is established for a specific group or organization and limits access to just that group.

3. Community Cloud - A community cloud is shared among two or more organizations that have similar cloud requirements.

4. Hybrid Cloud - A hybrid cloud is essentially a combination of at least two clouds, where the clouds included are a mixture of public, private, or community. 

Choosing a cloud provider 

Each provider serves a specific function, giving users more or less control over their cloud depending on the type. When you choose a provider, compare your needs to the cloud services available. Your cloud needs will vary depending on how you intend to use the space and resources associated with the cloud. If it will be for personal home use, you will need a different cloud type and provider than if you will be using the cloud for business. Keep in mind that your cloud provider will be pay-as-you-go, meaning that if your technological needs change at any point you can purchase more storage space (or less for that matter) from your cloud provider. There are three types of cloud providers that you can subscribe to: Software as a Service (SaaS), 

Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS). These three types differ in the amount of control that you have over your information, and conversely, how much you can expect your provider to do for you. Briefly, here is what you can expect from each type. 

1. Software as a Service - A SaaS provider gives subscribers access to both resources and applications. SaaS makes it unnecessary for you to have a physical copy of software to install on your devices. SaaS also makes it easier to have the same software on all of your devices at once by accessing it on the cloud. In a SaaS agreement, you have the least control over the cloud.

2. Platform as a Service - A PaaS system goes a level above the Software as a Service setup. A PaaS provider gives subscribers access to the components that they require to develop and operate applications over the internet.

3. Infrastructure as a Service - An IaaS agreement, as the name states, deals primarily with computational infrastructure. In an IaaS agreement, the subscriber completely outsources the storage and resources, such as hardware and software, that they need. 

As you go down the list from number one to number three, the subscriber gains more control over what they can do within the space of the cloud. The cloud provider has less control in an IaaS system than with an SaaS agreement. 

What does this mean for the home user or business looking to start using the cloud? It means you can choose your level of control over your information and types of services that you want from a cloud provider. For example, imagine you are starting up your own small business. You cannot afford to purchase and store all of the hardware and software necessary to stay on the cutting edge of your market. By subscribing to an Infrastructure as a Service cloud, you would be able to maintain your new business with just as much computational capability as a larger, more established company, while only paying for the storage space and bandwidth that you use. However, this system may mean you have to spend more of your resources on the development and operation of applications. As you can see, you should evaluate your current computational 

resources, the level of control you want to have, your financial situation, and where you foresee your business going before signing up with a cloud provider. If you are a home user, however, you will most likely be looking at free or low-cost cloud services (such as web-based email) and will not be as concerned with many of the more complex cloud offerings. After you have fully taken stock of where you are and where you want to be, research into each cloud provider will give you a better idea of whether they are right for you. 

Security 

The information housed on the cloud is often seen as valuable to individuals with malicious intent. There is a lot of personal information and potentially secure data that people store on their computers, and this information is now being transferred to the cloud. This makes it critical for you to understand the security measures that your cloud provider has in place, and it is equally important to take personal precautions to secure your data. 

The first thing you must look into is the security measures that your cloud provider already has in place. These vary from provider to provider and among the various types of clouds. What encryption methods do the providers have in place? What methods of protection do they have in place for the actual hardware that your data will be stored on? Will they have backups of my data? Do they have firewalls set up? If you have a community cloud, what barriers are in place to keep your information separate from other companies? Many cloud providers have standard terms and conditions that may answer these questions, but the home user will probably have little 

negotiation room in their cloud contract. A small business user may have slightly more room to discuss the terms of their contract with the provider and will be able to ask these questions during that time. There are many questions that you can ask, but it is important to choose a cloud provider that considers the security of your data as a major concern.

No matter how careful you are with your personal data, by subscribing to the cloud you will be giving up some control to an external source. This distance between you and the physical location of your data creates a barrier. It may also create more space for a third party to access your information. However, to take advantage of the benefits of the cloud, you will have to knowingly give up direct control of your data. On the converse, keep in mind that most cloud providers will have a great deal of knowledge on how to keep your data safe. A provider likely has more resources and expertise than the average user to secure their computers and networks. 

Conclusions 

To summarize, the cloud provides many options for the everyday computer user as well as large and small businesses. It opens up the world of computing to a broader range of uses and increases the ease of use by giving access through any internet connection. However, with this increased ease also come drawbacks. You have less control over who has access to your information and little to no knowledge of where it is stored. You also must be aware of the security risks of having data stored on the cloud. The cloud is a big target for malicious individuals and may have disadvantages because it can be accessed through an unsecured 

internet connection. 

If you are considering using the cloud, be certain that you identify what information you will be putting out in the cloud, who will have access to that information, and what you will need to make sure it is protected. Additionally, know your options in terms of what type of cloud will be best for your needs, what type of provider will be most useful to you, and what the reputation and responsibilities of the providers you are considering are before you sign up. 

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Western Ghats Development Programme - General Studies - HIMALAI IAS

WESTERN GHATS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

The Western Ghats Hill Ranges run to a length of about 1600 Kms., more or less parallel to the west coast of Maharashtra starting from the mouth of river Tapti in Dhule district of Maharashtra and ending at Kanyakumari, the southern-most tip of India in Tamil Nadu. The region covers an area of 1.60 lakh sq.kms. supporting a population of 442 lakh (1991 Census). 

The main problems of the Western Ghats region are the pressure of increasing population on land and vegetation, undesirable agricultural practices etc. These factors have contributed to ecological and environmental problems in the region. The fragile eco-system of the hills has come under severe pressure because of submersion of large areas under river valley projects, damage to areas due to mining, denudation of forest, clear felling of natural forests for raising commercial plantation, soil erosion leading to silting of reservoirs and reduction in their life span and the adverse effects of floods and landslides, encroachment of 

forest land and poaching of wild life etc. 

A separate Western Ghats Development Programme (WGDP) was launched in 1974-75 as a component of the programme for the development of hill areas of the country. The delineation of the Western Ghats Region for inclusion in the Programme was settled in 1981 by a one-man Committee headed by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the then Member-Incharge of the Hill Areas in the Planning Commission. For delineation of the areas for coverage by the WGDP, the criteria of elevation (600 metres above MSL) and contiguity with taluka (a territorial administrative unit) was adopted. The Programme is being implemented in 159 

talukas comprising of Western Ghats in five States viz. Maharashtra (62 talukas), Karnataka (40 talukas), Kerala (29 talukas), Tamil Nadu (25 talukas) and Goa (3 talukas). 

Since the Sixth Plan, the allocable Special Central Assistance (SCA) for the Hill Area Development Programme (HADP) was being distributed between WGDP and HADP in the proportion of 13.39 per cent and 86.61 per cent respectively. Presently, this is being distributed in proportion of 16 per cent and 84 per cent. The SCA allocated to States is released in the form of 90 per cent grant and 10 per cent loan. The financing pattern of Special Central Assistance (SCA) earmarked to WGDP is allocated among five States on the basis of 75 per cent weightage to the area and 25 per cent weightage to the population except 

Goa in which case, ad-hoc allocation of 5 per cent of the total SCA is made because Goa’s share when worked out adopting same criteria of weightage of area and population comes out to be minimal. 

APPROACH AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAMME 

The Western Ghats Hill Ranges run to a length of about 1600 Kms., more or less parallel to the west coast of Maharashtra starting from the mouth of river Tapti in Dhule district of Maharashtra and ending at Kanyakumari, the southern-most tip of India in Tamil Nadu. The region covers an area of 1.60 lakh sq.kms. supporting a population of 442 lakh (1991 Census).

The main problems of the Western Ghats region are the pressure of increasing population on land and vegetation, undesirable agricultural practices etc. These factors have contributed to ecological and environmental problems in the region. The fragile eco-system of the hills has come under severe pressure because of submersion of large areas under river valley projects, damage to areas due to mining, denudation of forest, clear felling of natural forests for raising commercial plantation, soil erosion leading to silting of reservoirs and reduction in their life span and the adverse effects of floods and landslides, encroachment of
forest land and poaching of wild life etc.

A separate Western Ghats Development Programme (WGDP) was launched in 1974-75 as a component of the programme for the development of hill areas of the country. The delineation of the Western Ghats Region for inclusion in the Programme was settled in 1981 by a one-man Committee headed by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, the then Member-Incharge of the Hill Areas in the Planning Commission. For delineation of the areas for coverage by the WGDP, the criteria of elevation (600 metres above MSL) and contiguity with taluka (a territorial administrative unit) was adopted. The Programme is being implemented in 159
talukas comprising of Western Ghats in five States viz. Maharashtra (62 talukas), Karnataka (40 talukas), Kerala (29 talukas), Tamil Nadu (25 talukas) and Goa (3 talukas).

Since the Sixth Plan, the allocable Special Central Assistance (SCA) for the Hill Area Development Programme (HADP) was being distributed between WGDP and HADP in the proportion of 13.39 per cent and 86.61 per cent respectively. Presently, this is being distributed in proportion of 16 per cent and 84 per cent. The SCA allocated to States is released in the form of 90 per cent grant and 10 per cent loan. The financing pattern of Special Central Assistance (SCA) earmarked to WGDP is allocated among five States on the basis of 75 per cent weightage to the area and 25 per cent weightage to the population except
Goa in which case, ad-hoc allocation of 5 per cent of the total SCA is made because Goa’s share when worked out adopting same criteria of weightage of area and population comes out to be minimal.

APPROACH AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAMME 

 During the Seventh Plan period, the following guiding principles were followed for WGDP for sustainable development of the areas covered under the Programme:

• Maintenance of ecological balance essential for the life support system
• Preservation of the genetic diversity. 
• Restoration of the ecological damage caused by human interactions.
• Creation of awareness among the people and educating them on the farreaching implications of ecological degradation and securing their active participation for the eco-development schemes.

The general approach under WGDP during Eighth Plan period and continued during Ninth Plan has been of integrated development on compact watershed basis keeping in view the over-riding priorities of eco-development and eco-restoration as well as the basic needs of the people like food, fodder, fuel and safe drinking water. The guiding principles of WGDP, also, lay emphasis on the people’s involvement in the programme. This calls for extension of education and publicity through audio-visual aids, mass contact programmes, visits to model sites etc. All these requires highly trained and motivated executing staff with 

team spirit. 

It has been decided to gradually switch over to the Integrated Watershed Approach on Project basis for development in the Western Ghats area. This approach envisages the identification and delineation of macro and micro watersheds, their prioritisation, base-line survey and preparation of an integrated development plan for each macro/micro watershed covering all relevant activities such as Soil Conservation, Agriculture, Horticulture, Afforestation, Fuel and Fodder Development, Minor Irrigation, Animal Husbandry and Sericulture. 

During the current financial year, it has been decided to allocate about 40 per cent of the total allocation under WGDP for programmes to be implemented on Integrated Watershed basis. The State Governments have been directed to initiate necessary preparatory work such as identification and prioritization of macro watersheds, entry level works, Participatory Rural Appraisal/Rapid Rural Appraisal exercises etc. 

A decision has also been taken to allow State Governments to utilise upto a maximum of 15 per cent of Special Central Assistance allocated to them under WGDP, for maintenance of assets created in the past under the Programme. 

HIMALAI IAS - ALL CORNERS OF BANGALORE & DELHI, ALL DIRECTIONS OF KARNATAKA, ALL REGIONS OF INDIA - FREE FOR JAMMU & KASHMIR ASSAM, SIKKIM, NAGALAND, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, MEGHALAYA, MANIPUR, NEPAL, BHUTAN - FOR PASSING EXAM, VISIT - www.himalaiiasclasses.com, Email: iashimalai@gmail.com, Contact: 11:00am to 8:00pm - 91- 9740346715/ 91-9844609250.

Thorium Fuel Cycle in India - General Studies -HIMALAI IAS

Thorium fuel cycle in India

India has a unique position in the world, in terms of availability of nuclear fuel resource. It has a limited resource of uranium but a large resource of thorium. The beach sands of Kerala and Orissa have rich reserves of monazite, which contains about 8 – 10% thorium.

Thorium can be used to produce nuclear energy, but not directly due to its physics characteristics. It has to be converted to²³³U in a nuclear reactor, before it can be used as fuel.  ²³³U provides better physics characteristics in comparison to the other fissile ²³⁵U and ²³⁹Pu. A Three-Stage Indian Nuclear Power Programme has been devised to utilise the available resources efficiently and in a sustainable manner.

Work on thorium has been carried out right from the inception of our nuclear programme.  Studies have been carried out on all aspects of thorium fuel cycle - mining and extraction, fuel fabrication, utilisation in different reactor systems, evaluation of its various properties and irradiation behaviour, reprocessing and recycling. Some of the important milestones achieved / technological progress made in these are as follows:

The process of producing thoria from monazite is well established. IREL has produced several tonnes of nuclear grade thoria powder

The fabrication of thoria based fuel by powder-pellet method is well established. Few tonnes of thoria fuel have been fabricated at BARC and NFC for various irradiations in research and power reactors.

Studies have been carried out regarding use of thorium in different types of reactors with respect to fuel management, reactor control and fuel utilisation.

A Critical Facility has been constructed and is being used for carrying out experiments with thoria based fuels.

Thoria based fuel irradiationshave been carried out in our research and power reactors. Thoria fuel rods in the reflector region of research reactor CIRUS. Thoria fuel assemblies as reactivity load in research reactor Dhruva. Thoria fuel bundles for flux flattening in the Initial Core of PHWRs. Thoria blanket assemblies in FBTR. (Th-Pu)MOX fuel pins of BWR, PHWR and AHWR design in research reactors CIRUS and Dhruva.

Post-Irradiation Examinations have been carried out on the irradiated PHWR thoria fuel bundles and (Th-Pu) MOX fuel pins.

Thermo-physical and thermodynamic properties have been evaluated for the thoria based fuels.

Thoria fuel rods irradiated in CIRUS have been reprocessed at Uranium Thorium Separation Facility (UTSF) BARC. The recovered 233U has been fabricated as fuel for KAMINI reactor.

Thoria blanket assemblies irradiated in FBTR have been reprocessed at IGCAR. The recovered 233U has been used for experimental irradiation of PFBR type fuel assembly in FBTR.

Thoria fuel bundles irradiated in PHWRs will be reprocessed in Power Reactor Thorium Reprocessing Facility (PRTRF). The recovered 233U will be used for reactor physics experiments in AHWR-Critical Facility.

Advanced reactors AHWR and AHWR300-LEU have been designed at BARC to provide impetus to the large-scale utilisation of thorium.

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR)

AHWR is a 300 MWe, vertical, pressure tube type, boiling light water cooled, and heavy water moderated reactor. AHWR is being set up as a technology demonstration reactor keeping in mind the long term deployment of Thorium based reactors in the third phase. It will provide a platform for demonstration of technologies required for thorium utilisation. The reactor will use (Th-Pu) MOX and (Th-²³³U) MOX types of fuel. The fissile ²³³U for this reactor will be obtained by reprocessing its spent fuel, while plutonium will be provided from reprocessing of the spent fuel of PHWRs.  The adoption of closed fuel cycle in AHWR helps in generating a large fraction of energy from thorium. A co-located fuel cycle facility (FCF) is planned along with the reactor and it will have facilities for fuel fabrication, fuel reprocessing and waste management. Some of the technologically challenging issues in this are handling of the highly radioactive fresh fuel, the requirement of remote fuel fabrication and carrying three-stream aqueous reprocessing by dissolution of the stable thoria matrix.

Extensive studies on various challenges in fabrication, reprocessing and waste management of thorium fuel cycle for AHWR are being carried out at BARC. 

Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) -LEU

AHWR-LEU is a 300 MWe, vertical, pressure tube type, boiling light water cooled, and heavy water moderated reactor. The reactor will use (Thorium-LEU) MOX as fuel with LEU (Low Enriched Uranium) having ²³⁵U enrichment of 19.75%. The reactor is being designed based on once-through fuel cycle during its life time.  A provision has therefore been made for long-term storage of the spent fuel along with monitoring and retrieval. These provisions during storage will keep open the option of reprocessing the spent fuel at a later date, if required. The co-location of the fuel fabrication plant with the reactor is not essential as no recycling of the bred fissile material in the same reactor is envisaged.

HIMALAI IAS - ALL CORNERS OF BANGALORE & DELHI, ALL DIRECTIONS OF KARNATAKA, ALL REGIONS OF INDIA - FREE FOR JAMMU & KASHMIR ASSAM, SIKKIM, NAGALAND, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, MEGHALAYA, MANIPUR, NEPAL, BHUTAN - FOR PASSING EXAM, VISIT - www.himalaiiasclasses.com, Email: iashimalai@gmail.com, Contact: 11:00am to 8:00pm - 91- 9740346715/ 91-9844609250.